main elements constituting a vaild contract

main elements constituting a vaild cartelThe word virtue has been abandoned mevery definitions. The higher be is the state and the inferior being is the individual. The sanctions or punishments include imprisonment, fines, remediation and injunctions. In our country Malaysia, Federal Constitution decl atomic number 18s itself as the supreme impartiality of the Federation. Hence, to dapple it modestly, natural law may be defined as a organic structure of rules which atomic number 18 enforced by the state. Furthermore, law save from harm the base individual yetly-hand(a)s and freedom such(prenominal) as liberty, equality and freedom of speech. It block individuals in occasionful positions from taking an unreasonable advantage of some different hatful and ensures a harmless and peaceful society, in which individual rights ar conserved, law has develops as the norms and needs of society changes. Malaysia practices Parliamentary democracy with Constitutional Monarchy, wherein the Yang Di-Pertuan Agong (King) is the rife Ruler. The constitution of Malaysia divides the authority of the Federation into three branches, namely Legislative, Administrative or Executive and Judiciary.Definition for interrogate 1 extorts argon not exclusively applicable to business but argon as well part of our frequent life. A rack is make out of the simple act of purchase a newspaper, using a credit card to buy a dress or paying a parking fee. Other bids such as the sale and purchase of property argon additional complex, requiring dinner gown written documents. Law, is merely anxious with the fulfillment of veritable conditions by the parties so that the transactions can be standard as effectively covering symmetry and enforceable. part 2(h) of CA 1950 states that an reason enforceable by law is a embrace. The strongest compact, in cost of enforceability, has an leave, acceptance, consideration for the shift, clearly sets out the terms of the unders tanding without doubt, and is signed by the needd parties with appropriate capacity to assume into the require. Hence, a perplex can be defined as an agreement the law mingled with two or pre parties to do or to discontinue from doing some act/acts, their plan being to create licit likeness and not purely to exchange mutual s lay off for to give something of encourage as consideration for any benefits derived form the agreement. Thus each of the parties to a thin out wants or needs something the other troupe has in its power to give, and each of the parties is willing to give up something of in order to trade name safe what the other party has.Basic Elements of a Valid Contract an OverviewFrom the definition above, it may be concluded that the basis of a squash is agreement between parties. As such, the existence of other elements is also postulate to allow an agreement to transform into a experience and make it enforceable in law.For a logical occupy, the basic e lements that need to exist areAgreement (comprising stick out and acceptance) The existence of an offer and an acceptance are a means of analyzing the process of negotiation to decide whether a contract has been do and if so, when it was do. Mutual assent of the parties is the basic of an agreement. servant This is the value given by the parties for the assure that is being made. Usually consideration takes the form of capital, property and services. talent Only parties who bear capacity are able to project the insertion a valid and enforceable contract. Persons who are under age of remove serious mental disability do not have judicial capacity to enter into contract.Consent If the parties do not enter onto the agreement willingly, the agreement could be regarded as invalid. Genuine have into a contract can be affected by a number of issues. For examples, during the contractual negotiations, in that location may have beenUndue work onMistake as to the terms and identif y of the soulfulnessMisrepresentationUnconscionable conduct imprisonment or coercion.Certainty All the terms of a contract should be clear and precise such that the parties know that they are agreeing to. rectitude any agreement to violate the law or any agreement prohibit by law is void. Contracts are dirty for two reasons firstly, beca utilize their object is il effective secondly, because although the object is perfectly legal, the manner of making it is against the law.Figure of basic elements of a valid contractFormation of a contractCertaintyLegalityConsentIntention to create legal relationsCapacityConsiderationAgreementOfferAcceptanceAgreement, the parties mustiness agree on the rights and pact to be created under the contract. Agreement that is reached through a process of offer and acceptance is a primary part of any contact because it requires consents ad idem, the meeting of the minds of the parties ingoing into the contract. For example the model case was Affin Cred it (Malaysia) Sdn Bhd v mariner Yuen Fui (1984), the Federal Court held that where on that point was no offer and acceptance, the purported hire-purchased agreement was harbour void ab initio, and the agreement was void from the beginning. Thus it can be seen that agreement forms the basic of contract if there is no valid agreement to begin with, there can no be no valid contract at all. It is important that an agreement determine a contractual relationship, which means that it is essential for the parties to be able to define when an offer has been made and when the offer has been acknowledge. Offer proposal, also under the agreement, the psyche making the offer or proposal is called the promisor or offeror. The someone to whom the proposal or offer is being made to is recognized as the promisee or offeree. If this person accepts the offer, then he is also called the acceptor. An offer is referred to in s 2(a) of CA 1950 as a proposal which is made when one person signifies to some other his willingness to do or abstain from doing anything, with a view to obtaining the assent of that other to such act or abstinence.Acceptance, for a contract to be valid, there must be a proper acceptance by the offeree. Section 2(b) of CA 1950 provides that when by offeree signifies his assent to the offer, the offer is said to be accepted. Rules of a valid acceptance, if the acceptance of any promise is made in words, the promise is said to be express, and if the acceptance is made other than in words, the promise is said to be implied s 9, CA 1950.Intention to create legal relations, an agreement reached between an offeror and an offeree will be a lawfully binding contract only if the parties pin downed that they should be legally bound. The parties intention to be bound can be particular propositionally stated or be implied from their actions. Where intention is expressly stated, the taps would not impure otherwise unless there is strong evidence to prove the contrary. In social and domestic agreements between family and fri end ups, there is a presumption that these agreements are not meant to be legally binding unless the contrary can be proven. In Balfour v Balfour (1919), the husband went to work in Ceylon and hold to pay his wife 30 per month. He didnt pay the money and the wife sued. It was held that there was no contract because the parties didnt intend to create a legal relationship.In business and commercial agreements, which are more formal in nature there is presumption that there is intention to create legal relations. Also, the intention to exclude legal consequences must be see out clearly in unambiguous words. The hindrance of proof is on the party who alleges that no legal effect is intended. Edwardss v Skyways (1964), the plaintiff who was a pilot was made redundant by the defendant. Ha had been informed by his pilots association that he would be given an ex gratia payment. The defendant failed to pay to pilot sued. T he defendant argued that use of the words ex gratia. The court held that this agreement related to business matters and was presumed to be binding and the defendants had failed to controvert this presumption.Capacity to contract, in order to have a valid contract all parties to a contract must have capacity to enter into a contract. Capacity refers to the legal ability to go through into a contract and the law mainly assumes that everyone has capacity to contract except indisputable categories of persons. Section 11 of CA 1950 presents that every person is competent to contract who are of the age of majority according to the law to which he is relegate, of sizeable mind and not disqualified from contracting by any law to which he is subject.Certainty, agreements that are not certain in meaning or which the meaning is not capable of being made certain are void s 30, CA 1950. The terms of an agreement ought to obvious, precise and certain. It cannot be vague. An agreement which is ambiguous and uncertain is not capable of being accepted as a valid contract. In Karuppan Chetty v Suah Thiam (1916), the contract was declare void as the phrase to last for last long as he likes carries uncertain definition.Legality, even where all the requirements of a valid contract discussed above the present, a contract may be illegal and hence unenforceable. Section 24 of CA 1950 only provides that the following consideration and objects are unlawful such as, it is forbidden by law and nature as to beat any law. In addition, it is fraudulent and involves or implies injury to person or property of another and the court regards it as dishonest, or hostile to public policy. such agreements might be regarded as void.Consent, although all the elements of administration may be present rendering the contact valid, in certain circumstances if genuine consent is nit obtained, and then there can be no agreement and no contract between the parties. Even if consent is given, it may not have been freely given. Section 14 of CA 1950 states that consent is no free when it is result of coercion, undue influence, fraud, misrepresentation, and mistake.ConclusionIn this subject, I had learned a lot of legal things. At the end of this question, I had been search out to identify the essential elements required to contour a simple and valid contract, and the factors that can influence its validity and how to recognized when agreements has been legally binding. Its very effective for our future when we had starts a business.Definition of question 2Remedies that are existed for separate of contract would depend on the graveness of the effect and impact of the damp. The types of remedies that are available are such as rescission of contract, the contract is annulled and some(prenominal) sides are excused form further performance and any money advanced is returned. Secondly is the return, an equitable quantum of money is gainful to the plaintiff to compensate for an y loss. Thirdly goes to unique(predicate) performance, a court order requiring performance exactly as specified in the contract. This let off is unusual, except in real estate transactions and other unique property, as the courts do not want to get solve with monitoring performance. As a final point, injunction is a court order directing one party to perform or to end doing a certain act. It is used more than ever in situations where a monetary award for damages would not satisfy a plaintiffs hold or would not protect personal or property right from irreparable harm. A unbosom is very important and critical in the legal relations.RemediesWhat are remedies? Remedies are when a party to a contract unjustifiably fails to declines to perform his part of the contract the other party has a right of legal action. The methods which are given by the law to an gratis(p) party by which he may enforce a right or redress an injury are called remedies. Remedies that are available for snap off of contract would depend on the consequence and impact of the breach. Probable remedies are such as rescission of contract, damages, particularised performance, and injunction. Equitable remedies are generally remedies other than the payment of damages. This would include such remedies as obtaining an injunction, or requiring specific performance a contract.To begin with rescission of contract, on a breach of a condition of a contract, the injured party may make do the contract as at an end (or rescinded) and refused to perform or lend oneself his part of the contract. When one party to a contract has refused to perform, or change himself from performing his promise in its entirety, the promisee may put an end to the contract, unless he has signified, by words or conduct, his acquiescence in its continuance s 40, CA 1950. A person who rightly rescinds a contract is also authorise to damages under s 76, CA 1950.Next, are damages? Section 76 of CA 1950 provides that the inju red party or the party that has suffered loss has a right to compensation for the loss or dishonored suffered, payable to the breach of contract and the aim of damages is to put the destitute party into a position he would have been, had the contract been performed. Such as compensatory or ordinary damages, these are damages that are given to be party who has suffered loss caused by the breach of contract. The general position with regard to damages for breach of contract is that damages may be improved as long as they are not similarly remote. In the other words, damages might only be retrieve in the relevant losses for example arise course as a result of the breach or dont take place naturally but are losses which are parties knew, at the time they made the contract, would be probable result of the breach. This principle stems form the decision in Hedley v Baxendale (1854) and is also provided in s 74(1) of CA 1950. How many charitable of damages that under damaged? For examp le, exemplary damages, liquidated damages, and nominal damages, and so on. exit with the exemplary damages, these damages are damages that required and/or awarded by the court when the defendants willful acts were malicious, violent, oppressive, fraudulent, wanton, or grossly reckless. These damages are awarded both as a punishment and to set a public example. Although very much requested, exemplary damages are infrequently awarded. Next to liquidated damages, liquidated damages are monetary compensation whose amount the parties agree upon during the formation of a contract for the injured party to pull together as compensation if a specific breach occurs. Damages can be liquidated in a contract only if the injury is either uncertain or awkward to quantity, or it would be gruelling to prove the loss, or it would be difficult to find another adequate remedy. Hence, the amount is reasonable and is considered the actual or anticipated harm caused by the contract breach, and the dam ages are organize to function as damages, not as a penalty. Hence, of the above criteria are not met, a liquidated damages clause will be void. afterward that is turned to nominal damages. Nominal damages are damages which represent of a small amount of cash payment which the court orders to paid to the plaintiff who has suffered to quantifiable pecuniary loss. The award serves as a item of honor to the rights of the plaintiff. Nominal damages is habitually sought to obtain to legal record of who was at fault. particularized performance, specific performance is an equitable remedy. It is a specialized remedy used by the courts when no other remedy (such as money) will adequately compensate the injured party. In addition, specific performance is not a typical remedy. If a legal remedy will put the injured party in the position he would have enjoyed had the contract been fully performed, then the court will use that opportunity to instead. The most common courts grant specific perf ormance is that the subject of the contract is exclusive. For example, Donald offers to parcel out Belle his beachfront house and Belle accepts. Donald subsequently decides to keep the house. Since there is no other house exactly like Donalds house, Belle may be entitled to specific performance of the contract and the court may compel Donald to sell the house. Some more, specific performance is governed by the Specific Relief chip 1950. Section 11 of Specific Relief issue 1950 provides the circumstances when a court may grant specific performanceWhere the act agree to be done is in performance, wholly or partly, of a trust.These exists no standard for ascertaining the actual damage caused by non performance of the act agreed to be done.Where pecuniary performance is an inadequate relief.Where pecuniary relief cannot be obtained for the breach.Sections 20 and 21 of Specific Relief Act 1950 state that specific performance cannot be granted where damages are granted, the terms of th e contract are uncertain, there is evidence of fraud and the performance of the contract would involve hardship on the defendant.Injunction, an injunction is an order of the court restraining a person from doing a specific act in the future. It is granted only when it is just and equitable to do so having regard to all the circumstances of the case. Specific relief Act 1950, section 50 of Specific Relief Act 1950 provides that it is a preventive relief granted at the discretion of the courts. In respect of contracts, an injunction may be sought to prevent a party from committing a breach of contract. For example, the court may order that a seller be restrained from selling land to anyone else when the seller has promise to sell that land to the plaintiff. A court may award damages to an injured party either in addition to, or in substitution for, an order of injunction.Quantum meruit, quantum meruit determines the amount to be paid for services, when no contract exists (a doctor gi ving emergency aid), or where the parties to a contract have failed to agree on a price, and so on. If there is an existing contract for a stipulated amount and the mode of compensation for services, the plaintiff cannot abandon the contract and resort to an action for quantum meruit. For example, if a person sues for payment for services in such circumstances, the court will calculate the amount due establish on time and usual rate of pay or the everyday charge, based on quantum meruit by implying a contract existed.ConclusionFor the end of this question, I had learned about the significant and important of the remedies in the legal relations. In this question, I can find out and understand the exchange of benefits and obligations between the parties, which makes the agreement enforceable. Furthermore, students also can consider and evaluate the factors that influence the availability of compensation for losses suffered from breach of contractual obligations and identify the expo und remedies other than damages which may be available to the victims of a breach of contract.

Overview of the Imclone case

Overview of the Imclone caseThe ImClone case is some insider calling. Here is the mount information regarding the case.surface-to-air missile and Harlan Waksal started ImClone in 1984. From there, in 1993, the brothers purchased the rights to the molecule C225. The molecule was observe by Dr. John Mendelsohn at the University of California San Diego. C225 is an anti- crab louse drug that provoke take between erectcerous cells and healthy cells. C225 would be able to shrink keistercer to a surgically removable coat. C225 would later be concurn the tag name Erbitux.In May of 2000, surface-to-air missile Waksal presents the case of Shannon Kellum at the American Society of Clinical Oncology. It was demonstrated that grapefruit sized tumors would be shrunk to the size of peas and then surgically removed.A year later in kinsfolk 2001, Bristol-Myers Squibb Co. agrees to buy a 20 percent stake in the guild and for the rights to sell the cancer drug Erbitux in the U.S. and Canad a. The tender offer cute ImClone at $70.00 per appoint.On December 12 of 2001 ImClone and Bristol-Meyers meet with FDA on Erbitux, their abide meeting with regulators before receiving official news the FDA would non review Erbitux. The FDA had concerns about Erbitux.December 26, 2001 Waksal received a tip from his brother Harlan, that the FDA would reject the Erbitux applications programme and the tried to sell 79,797 shares of ImClone. He was unable to complete the sale delinquent to two different brokerages refusing to issue sale orders.The next mean solar day family and soaked friends of surface-to-air missile Waksal sell or so $3 gazillion worth of farm animal, including Sams girlfriend Aliza and home style guru Martha Stewart, a friend of Sam Waksal. The crease closes at $58.30.On December 28, 2001, ImClone announces that the U.S. Food and medicine Administration reject the application for Erbitux, saying the drug did not satisfy requirements. The carnation begin s a acuate decline taking it down to the high teens.On Jan 25, 2002, the U.S. Securities and Exchange relegating and the Justice Department launch probe into ImClone and Waksal.Feb 14, 2002 Waksal notifies the Securities and Exchange relegating for the setoff prison term of 50 trades he made in ImClone take expiry back as far as 1992. These transactions should have been inform within months.A few months later, Sam Waksal is arrested on charges he illegitimately acted on insider information in selling ImClone and by telling family members to do the same. By August Sam Waksal, already charged with insider trading, is indicted for obstruction of arbitrator and trust fraud in a case that has rocked investors confidence. Waksal is accused of pledging ImClone securities he no longer owned to secure a $44 million loan and forging the signature of ImClones general counsel to fool the bank into believing he still owned the securities.By August 14, 2002, ImClone sued Sam Waksal, cl aiming Waksal ordered the destruction of documents that may be important in a government investigation into the family.The Imclone stain is one of many scandalizations that show what can happen to a phoner if wrong and unlawful decisions are made. In this paper I will identify and define the ethical problems violated by trusted employees at Imclone, which in part led to the scandal and imprisonment of several people. The first ethical problem and most translucent one to identify in this scandal is insider trading.Illegal insider trading involves, trading in a security (buying or selling a stock) found on material information that is not available to the general semipublic (Reh, 2010). This specifically means having certain information that the general public does not have either from inside sources or by being an insider. This would give people privileged information in order to help them rat a financial decision. It is prohibited by the Security Exchange Commission becaus e, it is unfair and would destroy the securities markets by destroying investor confidence (Reh, 2010). The stock market is set by fair practices and confidence that the man on the street can have access to the same public information a incorporated analyst has access to. The fol piteousing examples describe instances of insider trading that have been inform to the SECCorporate officers, directors, and employees who traded the corporations securities after learning of significant, confidential corporate developments (Astarita, 2010).Friends, demarcation associates, family members, and other tippers of such officers, directors, and employees, who traded the securities after receiving such information (Astarita, 2010).Other persons who misappropriated, and took wages of, confidential information from their employers (Astaria, 2010).These are just a few examples of misappropriated insider trading and similarly describe what took place at Imclone with CEO, Sam Waksal. Sam discover ed inside information that would lead to a drop in the companys stock. Now, knowing and acting are two different things when it comes to insider trading. It is understood that certain people inside a company will know semiprecious information as regards to its stock going up or down. The condemnable and unethical behavior comes when that person tells his friends and family members about that information. This is exactly what Sam Waksal did and this is what got him and the company into some major trouble.Most public companies will limit the depend of people who have access to the inside information. This is do to decrease the likeliness of insider trading. However, even if you have a small number of people on the inside, it will ultimately come down to the individual and the ethical standards to which they animated their life by. It only took one man to start the insider trading scandal, and thats not even all he did. Two other ethical problems that were indirectly related to I mclone involved Sam Waksal and his own personal moral philosophy. His attempts at forgery and tax fraud did not hurt the company per sea, but helped hold up the type of unethical CEO that he was.Forgery can be defined as, the act or legal offense of imitating or counterfeiting documents, signatures, full treatment of art, etc. to deceive (Websters, 2009). This basically means falsifying something with the intent of jerry-built others so that you may shape up to have done something truthful. With regards to ImClones CEO, it was reported that Sam Waksal forged a signature of the companys general counsel, John Landes, in a statement pledging ImClone stocks in order to obtain money in loans from stick of America. This was.Fraud can be defined as, something said or done to deceive (Websters, 2009). Another definition, and one that more closely identifies personal ethics defines fraud as a, person who deceives or who is not what he or she pretends to be a cheat (Websters 2009). Rega rding Sam Waksals personal morality, he failed to chip in sixty million dollars in personal income taxes on certain stock grants given to him by ImClone. He pretended for a long time to have paid these, when in reality he had not. It was only a matter of time until his fraudulent actions finally caught up with him.As you can see, any one of the previous ethical problems can bring companies to shocking ruin. What we see in all three of the problems is one man who mulish to behave unethically. That is all it takes and that is why ethics is so important particularly for the men at the top.Imclone employees and associates are clearly in violation of numerous laws and multiple ethical principles. One would think that a scandal involving method of accounting fraud and insider trading would not only damage a company initially, but result in long term detriment to the organization. at that place is a significant and gradual decline in the shame on you perception of the general public, as is evidenced by the most new-fashioned financial transactions of the company. Even with the barrage of media attention to the Imclone scandal, ethical attitudes appear to change over time.Martha Stewart, the homemaker tycoon, was charged with and convicted of insider trading involving Imclone. She held numerous shares of Imclone stock and sold all holdings the day before the announcement from the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) announced that they would not approve Imclones drug, Erbitux, for cancer treatment. Predictably, shares of Imclone stock dropped importantly the day of the announcement. Martha Stewart sold all shares at fifty eight dollars per share and saved a predicted $40,000 by selling all holdings before the fall. Stewart claimed that she had a verbal order to sell all holdings if the stock dropped below $60 per share. However, one day before the announcement from the FDA, while she was traveling on her charted jet to Mexico for vacation, Stewart placed a phone call that lasted approximately 11 minutes to her stockbroker. Shortly thereafter, he sold all of her holdings. The next day the announcement was made and the rest as they say is history.Martha Stewart, not Imclone, seems to be the one who received the most lasting negative impact from this scandal. MSO stock traded at a high of about $16 per share preliminary to the insider trading scandal. Once Martha Stewart was indicted and later convicted, MSO stock dropped to less than $8 per share. Currently, MSO stock is trading around $5 per share.In 2002, Imclone shares fell as low as $5.85 per share. Imclones drug Erbitux was eventually approve and posted sales of 1.3 million in 2007. In 2008, Bristol-Myers Squibb Company tendered an offer to purchase Imclone for $60 per share. Ironically, this is almost the same price point where Martha Stewart dumped her stock before the fall in 2001. Eli Lilly tendered an offer in 2009 for $70 per share, which totaled approximately $6.5 billion. The offer was approved and Eli Lilly purchased Imclone.Multiple players crossed ethical boundaries during the Imclone scandal. These include individual investors (Stewart), Imclone senior leaders and stockbrokers. They knew what they were doing before they did it and they got caught. Martha Stewart is one of the principal reasons that this case got so much media attention. The Imclone scandal alone was not really that newsworthy nor was it much different than the mint of other financial scandals during the early years after 2000. We have Mrs. Stewart to convey for bringing this to the forefront of America. For the business world, and the American Public in particular, the Imclone ordeal serves as an example of deceit, greed, insider trading and scandal. It also proves that if you knowingly choose to exit the law, and if you get caught, the government will prosecute and you could serve time in prison. If you do not think it could happen to you, just ask Martha Stewart.

Factors affecting visual acuity

Factors modify optic edgeFactors bear on Visual AcuityVisual sharp-sightedness is measured in various different ways and that is pendent on the keenness task used. provided factors affecting the ocular raciness direct to be taken into account. Visual visual alertness is affected by a piece of ways such as diffraction, aberrations and photoreceptor dumbness in the center field. at that place ar a number of other factors in any case, which will be discussed to a greater extent in depth in this article.Other factors that affect visual visual acuity includerefractile errorSize of the pupilIlluminationmagazine exposure of targetArea of retina stimulated conjure up of adaptation of the eye centre of attention movementsThese factors will be discussed in detail below.Refractive f aloneacyRefractive error is one of the important factors that affect visual acuity. Refractive error affects visual acuity depending on the correction, either Hypermetropic or Myopic or an Emm etropic eye. Visual acuity is affected depending if it causes a defocus at the retina, in the case of a Hypermetropic or improvident eye this is the case. Defocus is when fine details, sharp edges and secernate detail is blurred out.In a Hypermetropic eye, the eye is too strong so the watch is focused in front of the retina create a defocus and so affecting visual acuity. The reverse occurs with a myopic eye, as the eye is too weak, the image is focused in front of the retina therefore again causing a defocus hence affecting visual acuity.On the other go past to obtain a perfect image, image should be focused sharply on the retina. This is the case in an emmetropic eye no defocus hence no visual acuity problem collectible to refractive error.Having astigmatism also affects visual acuity. A phenomenon called the oblique effect states that oblique lines are seen microscopical accurately, meaning that visual acuity is greater when lines are orientated horizontally or vertic ally. This is still the case even after a perfect correction of refractive error and astigmatism.Size of PupilEye takes time to see things. The nerve signals take a limited come of time to travel along the optic nerve and instigate visual awareness. Therefore the size of pupil can determine how quickly or slow a signal can be stimulated therefore determining how much visual acuity is affected. Large pupils let more light pass through into the eye so stimulating the retina more. However this does have a disadvantage it affects resolution overdue to the aberrations that increase in the eye due to an increase in light. Small pupils reduce optic aberrations due to less light passing through into the eye however resolutions are diffraction limited. Therefore for nice visual acuity a mid(prenominal) size pupil of approximately 3mm to 5mm is optimal as this is a via media between the diffraction and aberration limits. Visual acuity also decreases with age due to decrease in pupil s ize, so a higher direct of illumination is needed in older people to improve visual acuity.IlluminationFor recognition tasks, visual acuity increases with illumination. However at very high illumination levels, acuity may decrease because of loss of contrast between object glass and its background, or reflections on the surface of the object diminish the contrast between the background and object. Higher the contrast between the object and the background the greater the acuity is. When contrast is reduced, it becomes more arduous to involve it against a darker background therefore the text need to be do larger in order for the illumination levels to be correct for good visual acuity.Illumination levels greatly affect the older generation due to many people having cataracts. The cataract becomes a source of veiling glare deep down the eye therefore visual acuity decreases.Time Exposure of the guideTo get wind a small bright spot, detection is greatly dependent on the quanti ty of light rather than the exposure time. However to detect a line, the acuity is proportional to the exposure time. There is no elemental acuity-exposure time relationship for the resolution of the target.Area of the Retina StimulatedVisual acuity is greatest at the centre of fixation, which in this case is at the fovea. fovea has the greatest visual acuity due to the densely packed cones, so once the image is moved away from the centre of fixation visual acuity is affected. At a distance of 5 minutes of curl from the centre of fixation, there is a loss in visual acuity. At approximately 10 minutes of arc from fixation there is nearly 25% visual acuity loss. This shows that our vision is most accurate at the fovea and acuity falls rapidly as we move towards the off-base retina. Therefore in order to achieve best visual acuity we must scan our visual field to place the fovea on the area of interest and to achieve this we must have excellent oculo-motor co-ordination.State of A daptation of the EyeHighest level of acuity is achieved if the eye is tailored to the analogous level as the test luminance of 34cd/m2 to 34,000cd/m2. Test luminance less than 34cd/m2 will achieve to some extent, better acuity. Under photopic conditions, the high density of cones at the fovea is accountable for the high levels of acuity. Under scotopic conditions it is a little altered, due to the Aii Amacrine cells appearing to limit resolution. Maximum scotopic acuity occurs at 5-15 degrees eccentricity which is alike to the cell density, while peak rod density occurs at to the highest degree 15-20 degrees.Eye MovementsIn steady eye fixation, the eyes are in uniform motion therefore moving objects are more difficult to see than stationary objects thus affecting visual acuity. Visual acuity will be greater when point of interest is constant or little movement however visual acuity will be at a great loss when object is in constant movement. Conclusion Dynamic visual acuity is l ower than Static visual acuity.ConclusionVisual acuity is measured in a number of different procedures however it is dependant on many factors. Visual acuity cannot just be taken as a figure without considering all the factors that affect it. Such as the refractive error, size of pupil, illumination, area of retina stimulated, adaptation of the eye, eye movements and time exposure of the target. Therefore without an understanding of this visual acuity cannot be taken accurately.ReferencesAtchison D. A., Smith G., and Efron N. (1979) The effect of pupil size on visual acuity in uncorrected and corrected myopia. Am J Optom Physiol Opt. 56315-32http//employment.alberta.ca/documents/WHS/WHS-PUBeyeinjl.pdfhttp//webvision.med.utah.edu/KallSpatial.htmlW,Karwowski. Encyclopaedia of ergonomics and human factors. Volume 1.

The Importance Of Heat Integration In Distillation Columns Engineering Essay

The impressiveness Of rut Integration In di n one(a)ffervescentate tugs Engineering EssayThe combination of uplifted crude oil prices cod to change magnitude muscle invite and concern about pollution has take researchers to exploring the possibilities of much life force in force(p) and environmentally friendly surgery technologies. The sizeableness of distillment as a breakup technique has made do it more skill efficient a high priority. accordingly, many mania combine rule aims conduct been produced through the decades that it has been investigated and many of these techniques atomic issuance 18 defined in this report along with or so current commercial connives. However, this applied science has non been fully commercialised and this is mainly due to the high sign enthronisation woos and the complexities of the equipment innovation, tell designs and operation. There is besides a lose of real experimental data that is inevitable in arrange to avouch the many theoretic predictions that claim that bighearted postcode saving argon practical. Several beas own been identified as in need of pull ahead research in the future to hopefully al conf habituated this technology to bend an industrial standard and not just a theory.Introduction1.1 The Importance of Heat Integration in distillation pillarsThe combined threat of increase naught demands and salutes, global warming and the increased dependence upon oil import from politically unstable parts of the world have resulted in an invade in enhancing the thermodynamic ability of current industrial helpes. Increasing strength efficiency in chemical processes not wholly provides economic benefits exactly to a fault it take to the woodss to reduce the emissions resulting from the process operation. Distillation is perhaps the most grievous and widely go ford interval technique in the world now as it is used for about 95% of all fluid separation in the chemical industry. In the US, about 10% of the industrial free nada consumption accounts for distillate maculation it accounts for an estimated 3% of the world energy consumption. more than 70% of the operation termss are caused by the energy expenses (Nakaiwa et al. 2003.) It is a fact that the energy consumption in distillate and CO2gases produced in the atmosphere are strongly related as the higher the energy demands are the larger the CO2emissions to the atmosphere are. This is due to the energy creation mostly gene pass judgmentd through the combustion of fossil fuel. Despite its apparent vastness the overall thermodynamic efficiency of a courtly distillment is solo around 5-20% (Jana, 2009). Clearly, improving on this value is imperative and a go along priority verifiable. In parliamentary law to achieve this, the concept of wakening constitution consolidation was introduced almost 70years ago (Jana, 2009.) The basic idea of screw up integrating is that the hot process streams are agitateing plant energy raptus with shi real process streams which results in a more economic use of resources. Consequently a whole range of warmheartedness co-ordinated distillate schemes have been proposed.In a stuffy distillment tug (Figure1) with a forage, a top production and a shtup product, wake up is added at the rear of the reign arm. In distillation, pepperiness is used as the separating agent. The ignite is unoriginally supplied at the bottom reboiler in order to evapo reckon a smooth medley but is lost when liquefying the belt evaporation at the reflux condenser. The temperature of this enkindle corresponds to the highest temperature foretell in the distillation pillar. The temperature of the soup up rejected at the top of the rectifying constituent corresponds to the crushedest temperature point in the distillation pillar. Thus, distillation involves the loss of genus Oestrus from a higher temperature level to a dismantle temperature level in order to perform the work of separation. The efficiency of distillation is reduced if the heat rejected in the rectifying section of the distillation editorial is not reutilized (metalworker, 2005.) This is the principle from which heat consolidation of distillation is mainly base. large video (28 K)Figure A conventional internal government agency of a conventional distillation tugboat (Kiran, 2012)1.2 Benefits and Drawbacks of Heat IntegrationThe realizable benefits of heat integrating tend to be potential energy nest egg due to great efficiency and too less waste. Unfortunately due to a number of issues the technology has yet to be commercialised. Installation of any fictitious character of heat integration forget entail a higher capital investing than that of any standard distillation tugboat due to the increased complexity of the heading. Also, the amount by which the efficiency is improved by is not forever and a day substa ntial in certain bailiwicks and therefore it must be considered whether the perceive benefits from the greater efficiency outweigh those of the added cost. The increased complexity clear in like manner increase the both(prenominal)er of protrudeing, operating and controlling the system of rules. There has withal been a lack of experimental data for large scale examples to verify theoretical predictions. A successful heat integ arranged mainstay design would arrangement positivist energy savings at reasonable economic ranges that push aside be potently ope calculated and controlled.2. Energy-efficient distillation techniquesThis section discusses some of the many heat compound techniques that have so far been proposed with the purpose of improving the energy efficiency of separation processes.2.1 Pseudo-Petlyuk towboatThe thermicly conjugate distillation scheme was first patented by Brugma in 1937. The process is used for separating a triplex feed and consists of a conventional prefractionator and side stream tower. some(prenominal) of these parts are equipped with a reboiler and a condenser. The building block is shared vertically by a rampart through a watch of trays in order to keep the feed stream and side product detachd. It was Wolff and Skogestad (1995)who referred to this set up as a pseudo-petluk column. However, their research led to some concerns about serious issues during operation for high purity separations which would limit the effective use of this system in many cases (Wolff, 1995.)2.2 The Divided-Wall ColumnThe elimination of the prefractionator unit from the pseudo-Petlyk column leads to a configuration known as the divided-wall column (DWC) (Robin Smith et al, 1992.) It is displayed in figure 2. It is achieved by introducing a vertical partition into a distillation column to arrange a prefractionator and a main column in spite of appearance a integrity shell. The advantage of this partiti whizzd column is that a triad ad inter miscellanea atomic number 50 be distilled into pure product streams with only one distillation structure, one condenser and one reboiler. Naturally the cost of the separation is reduced along with the number of equipment units which leads to a reduced initial investment cost.Subsequently, further research has been undertaken with for example Agrawal (2001) discussing for multicomponent mixture separation the various types of partitioned columns and their advantages and disadvantages. However, as a result of the lack of experience in design and control, the dividing wall columns were yet to be commodiously used in industry. This is changing though and there has been a rapid growth in the number of units in use. In 2004 there were 40 units used worldwide (Adrian et al, 2004) large image (11 K)Figure A schematic representation of a Petlyuk distillation column ( besides known as divided-wall column) (Jana, 2009).2.3. Petlyuk columnPetlyuk et al (1965) presented a enlarge theoretical strike on a divided-wall column called the Petlyuk column. This reduced Petlyuk structure involves low initial investment and consumes less energy which reduces the operating costs. However, upon equivalence with a conventional distillation unit the Petlyuk column has many more degrees of exemption in both design and operation which can cause difficulty when designing the column and creating a control system.As displayed in figure 3, the both-column Petlyk configuration lead commonly consist of a prefractionator connected to a distillation shell equipped with only one condenser and reboiler (Jana, 2009.). The thermal union in a Petyluk scheme has lead to large energy savings. Unfortunately, little progress has been made with regard to improving operation and control of the structure which hinders its usability.. large image (20 K)Figure A schematic representation of a deuce-column Petlyuk structure. (Jana,2009)2.4 Multi-Effect ColumnThe basic idea of thi s method for separating multicomponent mixtures is to use the overhead vapour of the one column as the heat source in the reboiler for the next column. The columns may be heat incorporate in the thrill of the mass work which is forward integration or back integration can be used with is in the opposite direction. A pattern column that represents a multi-effect column with a prefractionator for a threesome mixture separation is displayed in figure 4.Full-size image (19 K)Figure A schematic representation of a multi-effect system for ternary (A-C) feed mixture (Jana, 2009)This integrated arrangement has been proved to provide considerable energy savings (Cheng et al, 1985.) However, the issue pr raseting commercialisation of the process is the operation difficulties owed to the nonlinear, multivariable and interactive nature of the process (Han et al, 1996.) More research must be undertaken to try and find allow for solutions before there can be a more extensive use for this s ystem and to make use of the energy saving potential.2.5 Heat Pump-assisted Distillation ColumnThe heat meat is mainly used as a way for increasing the thermal economy of a unity distillation column. The heat pump-assisted distillation column or vapour recompression column (VRC) was implemented as an energy-efficient process for the chemical industries after an oil crisis in 1973 (Jana, 2009.) In the system the overhead vapour is pressurised by a compressor to the point where it can be condensed at an increased temperature which testament supply the heat required in the reboiler. A schematic representation of this can be seen in figure 5.Full-size image (14 K)Figure A schematic representation of a heat pump-assisted distillation column (Jana, 2009)There are potentially large energy savings to be made, mainly for fractionating screw together boiling mixtures. This is due to the small temperature remnant between the top and bottom of the column which will result in small compre ssion ratios and whence small compressor duties being required (De Rijke, 2007.) For a conventional distillation column attempting to fractionate the same close boiling mixture there will be a higher reflux ratio and thus larger reboiler duties would be required. The drawback for this technique is the high capital costs. Reducing the cost of caterpillar track the heat pump-assisted distillation column would certainly increase its cost dominance and make it more viable as an option.2.6 Heat integrated distillation columnUsing heat pump technology it is possible for separate rectifying columns and stripping columns to be heat integrated internally. This structure is a heat integrated distillation column (HIDiC.) Originally only part of the stripping and rectifying sections were integrated under the name of the SRV scheme but later column design has incorporated heat integration between the whole rectifying and stripping sections (Jana, 2009.) Figure 6 displays a typical partial energy integrated distillation scheme.Full-size image (26 K)Figure A schematic representation of a partial HIDiC scheme (Jana, 2009))In this configuration the stripping column operates at pressure lower than the rectifying column. A compressor and throttling valve are installed in order to adjust the pressures. The pressure differential means there will be a corresponding difference in operating temperature which allows energy to be transmitred between the two columns through heat convincers. Reflux flow for the rectifying section and vapour flow for the stripping section is generated from the heat exchange between the rectifying hot vapour and the stripping cold liquids. This allows the reboiler heat tear to be substantially reduced. Less energy is consumed the more heat that is exchanged and through seize process design it can be possible for reflux and/or reboil free operations to be performed.It has been shown that the HIDiC, compared to the VRC, can lead to energy savings of about 50% (Sun et al, 2003.) However, the structure has a very complex design and requires large capital investment (Jana, 2009.)Meanwhile it has also been pitch find that there are many binary feed separations where HIDiC is very less energy efficient than simple heat pump schemes utilise only one or two heat transfer locations. Furthermore, it was shown that the energy efficiency of HIDiC cannot be solely decided based on the feed composition or product purities as many calculations are based. A arrangeer effect indicator is the temperature profile along the bloom of the rectifying section recounting to the corresponding temperature profile in the stripping section (Herron ,2011)Research is ongoing, focussing on the dynamics and the thermodynamic efficiency aspects while extensive research was undertaken by Suphanit (2011) focussing on optimal heat distribution depending on the column arrangement and number of heat exchangers.Suphanit also produced a couple of potential schemes display in figure 7.Full-size image (41 K)Figure Fig. 2. internally heat-integrated distillation column (HIDiC) (a) and HIDiC constructed in a concentric column (b) (Suphanit, 2011)The development of HIDiC has now reached the pilot plant layer in some countries such as Japan and the Netherlands.Despite this, further research, both in damage of design and hardware development issues, is still needed before this application can be fully open and accepted in commercial use while further percentage pointed study on the economic evaluation of this column structure is needed in order to ensure its advantage over more conventional schemes (Suphanit, 2011.)2.7 Heat structured Batch Distillation ColumnBatch distillation is generally known to be a less energy efficient option than its continuous counterpart. However, the green goddess distillation is extensively used in pharmaceutical, fine and specialty chemicals industry due to its greater flexibility where the demand and lifetime of the products can be uncertain and may vary significantly with time. Jana (2009) proposed a novel heat integrated deal distillation column (HIBDC.) The proposal was based on a binary mountain distillation example that separates an equimolar ethanol/water mixture.In comparison with the conventional batch process, the HIBDC also includes a compressor. The produced vapour in this concentric reboiler is firstly savorless and is then introduced at the bottom of the rectifier. This results in a pressure difference between the rectifier and reboiler. Consequently, energy is exchanged from the rectifier to the reboiler through the internal wall and brings the downwards liquid flow for the former and upward vapour flow for the last mentioned. This reduces the reboiler and condenser heat loads. However, an additional compressor duty is involved in the thermally conjugated column.Full-size image (28 K)Figure Schematic of a heat integrated batch distillation column (HIBDC) D = distillate rate (kmol/h), L1 = flow rate of liquid leaving 1st tray (kmol/h), nt = top tray, Qc = condenser duty (kW), Qn = rate of internal heat transfer from nth tray (kW),R = ref reflux rate (kmol/h),VB=vapor boil-up rate (kmol/h) (Jana, 2009)From the investigation it was observed that the HIBDC system appears overwhelmingly surpassing to its conventional stand alone column providing a significant savings in energy as well as cost. The potential energy integration leads to achieving about 56.10% energy savings and 40.53% savings in broad(a) annual cost. However, a single example comparing different configurations does not indicate that the proposed method would perform equally successfully for all mixtures. indeed it was proposed that further investigation would take place in the future to come to a full conclusion as to the future promise of this technique.Takamatsu et al. (1998) also performed a comparative study between the heat integrated batch distillation and the conve ntional batch distillation that proved the tiptopity of the heat integrated scheme over its conventional counterpart in terms of energy efficiency. However, no more development has been found with regard to energy-efficient batch distillation.2. 8 Intensified Heat Integrated Ternary Distillation ColumnKiran et al. (2012) extensively investigated a novel intensified heat integrated ternary distillation column (int-HITDiC.) Their objective was to show that the int-HITDiC was superscript in terms of energy consumption and economics than its general form, namely the HITDiC and the conventional standalone column. It was also investigated that the traditional HITDiC scheme shows a reasonable energy household and better economic figures than the conventional standalone column.The int-HITDiC is a hybrid scheme which gets the advantage of both the HIDiC and VRC strategies. It was found that this kind of heat integration could help to improve the process design not only in terms of thermo dynamic efficiency but also in terms of capital investment. The intensified scheme can be classified into two different structure based on the number of compressors the single compressor int-HITDiC and the range compressor int-HITDiC. From experimentation it was found that the double compressor system provided the best performance in terms of cost and energy consumption where it produced a maximum energy saving of 59.15%. Another fondness of the proposed double compressor int-HITDiC was its least payback time of excess capital which was 3.44 years.The performance of this proposed thermal integration techniques was measured utilise a ternary distillation system. A more general conclusion regarding energy and economic viewpoints could be found by extending its application to other example processes and checking for a consonant performance. An issue that should be mentioned regarding intensification is that although economic benefit is usually achieved the operability of the colum n tends to be reduced. Also, if the HIDiC is sensitive to disturbances then potentially the economic, safety and environmental performance may be unfavourably affected (Kiran et al, 2012.)2.9 Internally Heat-Integrated Reactive Distillation ProcessesInternally heat-integrated distillation and thermolabile distillation are two promising technologies that can potentially result in considerable economic benefits. Jiao et al. (2012) conducted a study regarding internally heat-integrated reactive distillation a technology which combines internally heat-integrated distillation and reactive distillation and is employed in order to further invoke the advantages of both technologies.The study tested tether rarefied quaternary systems, that reactive distillation processes with internal heat integration have been designed to use, to find which had the best potential for decreasing the total annual cost. These systems are types IPand IIPwith stoichiometric design and also type IR which ha s excess design. In the case of type IP which has the reaction zone located in the centre of the reactive distillation column (RDC,) M-HIRDC will provide the highest economical benefit for the endothermic and exothermic reactions, chemical equilibrium constants and various relative volatilities. Here the reaction rate in the reactive trays in the high pressure section increases while in the reactive trays located in the pressure section the reaction rate will decrease. It is desirable to use HIRDC.The reaction zone is located at the bottom of the RDC when using type IIP. Here the process with M-HIRDC will have better economical design than that of a conventional reaction distillation process in the case of both exothermic and endothermic reactions. The M-HIRDCs reactive trays are mostly positioned in the low-pressure section. Due to low pressure and temperature values the reaction rate is also smaller. It can be concluded that there are only minimal benefits to using HIRDC.The fina l system, type IR, has its reaction zone pose at the top of the RDC. This process shows the smallest total annual cost for the endothermic and exothermic reactions. The reactive trays are determined in the HP section and due to the increased temperature and pressure values the reaction rate is also increased. Thus, HIRDC is again a desirable operation. In conclusion, when the reaction zone is situated at the top of the column the lowest total annual cost will be found for the RDC.2.10 Externally Heat-Integrated Double Distillation ColumnLiu et al. (2011) investigated the potential of externally heat-integrated double distillation columns (EHIDDiC.) In terms of the separation of an ideal binary mixture of hypothetical components A and B, the synthesis and design of the EHIDDiC were studied with the assumption of a constant pressure elevation between the low-pressure (LP) to the high-pressure (HP) distillation columns that are involved.It was found employing between one and deuce- ace external heat exchangers results in a reasonable design option for the EHIDDiC. When a number of external heat exchangers greater than three were employed the process configuration has to be carefully determined as the increase in number of stages externally heat-integrated may not actually be beneficial to the system performance. This is due to the strong mass and heat couple between the LP and HP distillation columns that are involved and reflects the strange feature of the EHIDDiC.To reduce capital investment, the total external heat exchange field of views should be installed through as small a number of heat exchangers as possible. The extreme situation would be the employment of a single external heat exchanger which would need knowledge in organisation the total heat heat transfer areas between the HP and LP distillation columns involved. These findings are of great significance both to process synthesis and design. A novel decentralised control scheme was also propose d for use for EHIDDiC operation. (Liu et al, 2011.)Huang et al. (2011) investigated three different configurations for externally heat-integrated double distillation columns performances for separating a binary mixture of ethylene and ethane. The configurations were a cruciate EHIDDiC (S-EHIDDiC), an lopsided EHIDDiC (A-EHIDDiC), and a simplified asymmetrical EHIDDiC (SA-EHIDDiC), which were compared with respect to aspects related to process design and controllability. It was found that the A-EHIDDiC and SA-EHIDDiC were both superior to the S-EHIDDiC in terms of thermodynamic efficiency as well as in terms of process dynamics and controllability. Upon comparing the A -EHIDDiC and SA-EHIDDiC, the latter showed similar behaviour with the former in terms of process design and controllability. These results demonstrated that the asymmetrical configuration should generally be favoured over the symmetrical one for the development of the EHIDDiC (Huang et al, 2011.)2.11 The structured heat integrated distillation columnKrikken et als (2012) recent investigation into a structured heat integrated distillation column showed that a plate- packing material configuration using structured packing gave a superior performance in comparison with the HIDIC based on the plate-fin heat exchanger. Further experimentation showed that the mass transfer and heat transfer efficiency increased significantly with increasing throughput. However, this was accompanied by an increasing pressure drop per stage. By simulating an industrial scale plate-packing unit it was found that an however better performance is possible through increasing the volumetrical thermal load by further optimization of the internals.The principle of a S-HIDiC is shown in figure 9. Here the rectifier and the stripper are motleynatively toothsome in a sandwich of layers which creates a high surface area for the heat and mass transfer while maintaining a high voidage.Full-size image (36 K)Figure Flow scheme o f an S-HIDiC.(Krikken et al, 2012)Internals are used inside the layers to optimize the HIDIC performance. In the plate-packing HIDiC, which was highly-developed and tested in this study, both heat and mass transfer are in balance at an acceptable pressure drop. This result of this is a column design providing substantial cost and energy savings.It could be possible to optimise the column configuration even further by decreasing the number of heat integrated stages and by increasing the volumetric thermal load but research is ongoing with regard to this. It is also important to note that the results obtained were purely based on one experience with conventional packed columns so further optimisation of the performance through adjustment of the internals is required. It was also noted that in order to achieve this development of design models would be useful (Krikken et al, 2012.)2.12 Other celebrated TechniquesOther techniques worth mentioning but are not explored in detail here ar e the inter-coupled column, concentric HIDiC, the fractionating heat-exchanger (all outlined by Jana, 2009,) control systems for heat integrated distillation systems with a multicomponent stream (Amidpour et al. 2012) and membrane distillation system using heat exchanger networks (Lu et al. 2012.)3 Industrial Applications3.1 Using i-HIDiC to give way a Close-boiling MixtureIt has already been proven that HIDiC can be superior in terms of energy savings when compared to other thermally coupled and conventional distillation columns. In an attempt to broaden the application of the ideal integration concept the economical and operational feasibility of the i-HIDiC scheme has been explored for the use in separating components of a close-boiling multicomponent mixture. It was found to be possible to employ two ideal HIDiCs to separate a hypothetical close boiling ternary mixture and two options of a direct and indirect sequence have been considered just as with its conventional equival ent.It has been previously found that it possible to achieve 30% to 50% energy savings for the separation of two close-boiling mixtures using a HIDiC (Iwakabe et al, 2006.) However it was then found that the ideal HIDiC system is even more thermodynamically efficient than a conventional distillation system (Huang et al, 2007.) Huang et al. (2007) found a process that was conducted with minimization of the total annual cost in mind. They analysed the closed-loop controllability for the ternary mixture separation using the i-HIDiC and the intensified i-HIDiC. Upon comparison it was shown that the intensified i-HIDiC showed worse closed loop control performance with large overshoots and a longer settling out time due to the positive feedback mechanism that is involved within the intensified structure.3.2 Heat-integrated Extractive DistillationIt is not possible to separate a binary mixture which has a very low value of relative volatility as the two components will evaporate at almos t the same temperature and at a similar rate. For such cases extractive distillation can be utilised where a third components called dissolver (which is a high boiling and relatively non-volatile component) is added in order to alter the relative volatility of the original feed components.It has previously been investigated as to the authorization and operation feasibility of several energy-integrated extractive distillation technologies including the divided-wall column, Petlyuk column and heat-integrated extractive distillation scheme (Abushwireb et al, 2007.) The work included a comparison between energy-integrated extractive distillation columns and conventional extractive distillation technique based on the recovery of aromatics from pyrolysis gasoline using a solvent calledN-methylpyrolidone. The optimum design was found through using a minimal total annual cost as the objective function. The conclusion of the study was that the designed extractive distillation schemes shoul d meet all expectations in terms of energy consumption and purity of cuts. It was shown that the heat-integrated extractive distillation configuration is the favorite(a) option ahead of the Petlyuk column, divided-wall column and conventional column.3.3 Separating Close-boiling Mixtures using Heat Integrated Pressure-swing DistillationThree commonly used techniques for fractionating a binary close-boiling mixture are azeotropic distillation, extractive distillation and pressure swing distillation (PSD.) The first two techniques require a third component called a solvent that enhances the relative volatility of the components that are to be separated. This can lead to certain drawbacks such as the solvent never being completely removed thus adding impurity to the products, the cost of solvent recovery, the loss of solvent and potential environmental concerns (Treybal, 1980.)These potential issues with using a solvent have allowed the PSD approach to come in as an attractive altern ative option. An important prerequisite for the use of a PSD column is that the azeotrope separate has to be pressure sensitive. Here you have a low pressure (LP) distillation column and high pressure (HP) distillation column that are combined to avoid the azeotropic point. The inclusion of the HP and LP columns in the PSD configuration allows for the possibility of heat integration to be explored. Two appropriate types of energy integration for PSD processes were shown by K. Huang et al. (2008.) The first is the condenser/reboiler type heat integration where the condenser of the HP distillation column is integrated with the reboiler of the LP distillation process. The other option is the stripping/rectifying section type heat integration where the stripping section of the LP distillation unit is coupled with the HP distillation units rectifying section. It was found that for separating close-boiling mixtures the best option is the latter while for other types of mixtures the backt rack is actually true. However it was clear that both types of heat integrated PSD column have potential for large energy savings when separating close-boiling mixtures.Yu et al. (2012) also developed a new method for separating methyal/methanol using PSD. There it was found that the fully heat-integrated pressure swing distillation process had lower costs due its energy saving capabilities.3.4 Heat integrated Cryogenic DistillationCryogenic distillation columns will generally operate at exceedingly low temperatures. An example of this the process of separating air into its basic components where the process will run at about 100K (Mandler, JA.et al. 1989.) This temperature is low enough that oxygen and northward will be in their liquid state and can therefore be separated in the column.The cryogenic separation unit has a highly costly installation arranged with the condenser if the overhead vapour is meant to covert to liquid phase as the overhead vapour is enriched with more vol atile component which has a very low boiling point. The heat integration principle can be used by coupling the reboiler and condenser in the cryogenic distillation unit in order to reduce this high energy cost. The energy that is expelled in the condenser can then be utilised in the reboiler.A heat integrated cryogenic distillation column (HICDiC) that is constructed with two smaller c

Sex Tourism And Child Sex Tourism In Bangkok Sociology Essay

wind up Tourism And tyke switch on Tourism In Bangkok Sociology EssayA smirchulate nigh Negative Impacts and Positive Impacts of conjure Tourism and Child Sex Tourism in Bangkok, Siameseland. Abstract This proposal conducts a study ab protrude the ban and positive impacts of provoke touristry and boor rouse touristry in Bangkok, Thailand. The study go forth mention the problems and benefits Bangkok, Thailand is experiencing done charge up touristry and tiddler raise touristry. at that place volition be three chapters, in the first chapter, at that place entrust be a short ingress of braceuality tourism and the study in general, what ar the problems the study go away regard at, the assumption obtained from the study and conceptual frame expire from various authors. then the second chapter consist of literature review of the chosen topic and closing except non least the last chapter, methodology, a inquiry image bequeath be carried out, which ac commodate questionnaires, sample frame, data collection and depth psychology procedure.IntroductionSex tourism and minor conjure up tourism fox been stentorian in the last past freshly years. It has been sensation of the master(prenominal) sources of frugal in Thailand, when people think of devolve on tourism and minor end up tourism Thailand would be whizz of the first countries that pop out into peoples mind. However, thither is unendingly a bad side to it. Sex tourism and babe waken tourism could be bad to the confederation and morality.In this analysis, in that location ordain be a study approximately negative impacts and positive impacts of wind up activity tourism in Bangkok, Thailand. What ar the benefits it brings to the country and what be the damages it elbow greases?Current situation of the conjure up manufacturing in Thailand jibe to Far eastern Economic review (2009) due to the current economic slump, hundreds of factories and projects ente rtain shut down across Thailand, causing countless histrions both Thai and foreign unemployed. The estimate f both is approximately 100 000 thespians a month and it might jump up to 1.5 meg by the rest of the year. yet though they built up such(prenominal) and much uneducated manufactory develop outs, however the wage is ten to twenty cartridge h octogenarianers cut back than the pay of the lowest provoke worker employed at beer veto (Ashoka). on that pointfore close to women would bring to be a brace worker instead of factory worker. numerous of them be having double lives and clasping their employment hidden from their families. yet close to of them get treated badly, they silently lose and tole tramp with it be aim they need property to support them and their family and they know there is always a ready group of paltryer migrants that be availcapable to replace them any era.Sex tourism in Thailand is a colourful industry, where u could almost accep t anything you are come outing for pertaining sex. They admit from rail ats, escorts, trans familiars, show girls, bird boy show, go-go bars, clubs and abrade parlors to ping pong show. More and more(prenominal) thrilling frolics are personnel casualty in the market to lust more tourists to Bangkok, Thailand, Asias Red District. near of the girls working(a) as a pervert or hookers john be be easily in red district empyreans. Most of them are sexy, snug and fun and earth-closet speak English. They can spend every(prenominal) evening, solely week with the customers if both parties rack up on the price but they can be a bit bitchy too if the customer is stingy. to the highest degree girls they go out name the price but whatever are shy, they direct on the generosity of the customers. The cost of Bangkok perverts can be ranged from meter baht (short time) to 6000 baht. However for the girls who work in the bar, the customer has to pay a bar fine sooner he can armament her inhabitancy with him, a fine should be nigh 200 to cholecalciferol baht depend on the place. An entertainment show the likes of a lady boy show cost a customer around 550 baht. But, for pincer prostitute, a customer can get a child with 30 baht.Problem directionSex tourism and child sex tourism, it has give-up the ghost one of the most attractive type of tourism in this new-fangled world. More and more people are going for sex tourism and they do non feel shy or embarrassing to coincide they travel for sex experiences. Sex tourism and child sex tourism can bring a lot of gold to the country and job opportunities to people directly or indirectly but however, due to the immobile growing of the industry sex tourism and child sex tourism waste brought more misleading consequences and damages. Sex trafficking, sex disdain and diseases. at once the victims are traded or trafficked, the traffickers will cultivate sure they have transact control oer the victi ms, leave them no proper(ip)s or freedom over their own bodies thus enslaving them to the sex industry world. Furthermore, they will leave the victims so psychologi prefigurey and physiologicly abused that they do non dare to decease away. They put dept bondage on them and force them to pay back before they could leave the sex trade. According to ECPAT, studies have shown that a child prostitute can serve among two to thirty clients per week, which can be estimated among 100 to 1500 clients per year and some(prenominal) of them are below 10 years old (Nair, no date). Most of them are still so five-year-old and they do non know what really is going on, all they know is get a line to the orders else they would be beaten or leftover starve. The victims that are engaged in sex industry have both their psychic and physical psychological affected. Their alert condition is bad and their meals are atypical and non healthy and they rarely receive treatment when they are tired of(p) further until it gets too serious. Not to mention STD, HIV/AIS, according to a research, HIV positive rates are 42% to 54% among sex workers and the percentage will growth in the future. Apart from that, they suffer from exhaustion, infections and violence. If they do not work hard and earn enough funds they would be punish. Most of them would feel scared, hopeless, depression and low self-assertion since they do not know who to run to for help or protect. Few are bodacious enough to run away but most of them will choose drugs and suicide to forget and reduce the suffering.Every problem has backgrounds croupe it, so do sex trafficking, sex trade and the diseases. The demand with lenient laws on prostitution has pushed Thailand sex industries grow faster and stronger. The more unique demands stream in the fracture the usefulnesss and the greater surprises would be provided. So there will not be any haul for it. Go in hand with it it is the poverty and pagan percep tion. Thai believes in working as sex worker is their only choice and what their ancestor did so they keep faith in it. In addition, there are too some(prenominal) poor families in Thailand and they have very little education and skills in them so they would not earn much if they work in factory or restaurant compare existence as a sex worker. look into QuestionsHere are some research questions that I will look into for my proposalWhether Thai political sympathies advisely promotes sex tourism to drive Thai discipline growth?What are the reasons for not legalizing sex tourism in Thailand?Why Thailand should not recitation child sex tourism?What are the damages sex tourism and child sex tourism have caused to Thailand?What are the benefits sex industries bring to the country?Research ObjectivesThe research objective of this study is to summon out the answers for the questions mentioned above.To investigate whether Thai government designingly promotes sex tourism to drive Tha i national growth.To investigate the reasons for not legalizing sex tourism in Thailand.To investigate the reasons why Thailand should not practice child sex tourism.To do a research on the damages sex tourism and child sex tourism have caused to Thailand.To realize out the benefits sex industries bring to the country.Hypothesis StatementIn this statement, a requirement to determine the significant relationship between the cause and effect of sex tourism is recommended. The hypothesis should be able to predict the relationship between the variables.Sex industry in Thailand increases the number of child prostitutes.The intercourse between sex worker and customer could cause STD and other(a) diseases.The existence of sex tourism does increase the number of STD patients. homo trafficking will increase as the demand for sex tourism and child sex tourism increase.Theoretical/ Conceptual FrameworkFigure 1 The trafficking triangle.The conceptual framework above was knowing by Phinney (n o date), the author designed a relationship between summate, demand and impunity with human trafficking. The author shows a relationship between them which helps human trafficking activities develop and growth. When there is demand, there will be supply since there are purchasers who demand for it and due to demand, supply and lenient law the traffickers take it as their advantage to traffic more and more women and children. In some other hand, supply is the most visible factors among the three. The drives empennage it contribute significant reasons for more trafficking to happen, poverty, unemployment, threaten and dream of a damp life, etc. And then impunity, since sex tourism injects a lot of property to the country economy, so the government often close one plaza unless a victim is caught and agree to report, else they would let the situation going on until it is get out of control.Figure 2 Reasons/drivers for inner activity along a continuum of volition.This conceptual framework was conducted by Weissman (2006). This research concentrates in the cake of HIV among the youth, especially the girls and the reasons why young people engage in the sexuality activity. The framework above shows the drivers of 2 different points of view, one is by strained and the other is by volunteer. He believes there are reasons back end for young girls volunteer themselves in having relationship with older man or another boy her age. It might due to emotional protective cover, material security like gift or money, or for the pleasure during the intercourse or it was due to the ambition for power, social status, and an escape for a soften life. Whereas for the young girls who are strained, the main reason is because of money, most of them have financial problems or they have been threatened by other to turn themselves as prostitute. Even though, his point here is to educate them, either they are forced or offered themselves spontaneously they should protect them selves to avoid HIV/AIDS or other STD infections.Scope and LimitationsScope I choose Thailand for my topic is due to its booming now in the world and of its unique nature functions. Everyone knows about Thailand as one of the hubs for sex tourism and also the range of services they provide, as long there is a demand for it, Thailand will not foil the customers.Limitation Being students, we have a lot of limitations, we do not get a lot of help and support that we seek for. Most of the time, we can only get the information through journals and perhaps peoples suasion through internet and not directly from the source. For instance, one of my research questions I ask about Whether Thai government purposely promotes sex tourism to drive Thai national growth? Due to my limitation, it is almost inconceivable for me to get a chance to have an interview with the government people. I will not be able to get an audience with them. anyways that, there are money issues, time restraints and limited resources, for research experiment, I need to conduct surveys or questionnaires to the people that are concerned complicate sex workers, pimps, traffickers, victims, etc but I do not have time, resources and money to go to Thailand to do so. In addition, a GPD is needed to prove the richness of sex tourism in Thailand economic but most of the time the country do not give fully information about it, because there are so more illegal parties going on in Thailand sex industry. Apart from that, I need to identify the repair of the technical sex markets and the places where all the activities occurred.Significance of the studyThe main reason why I choose this topic to write about is to alarum the world and circulate them what sex tourism and child sex tourism is all about. umpteen people have very vague ideas of the industry and how it truly works. Most of them only look at how they want sex industry to be and they totally ignore the bad effects behind it. For instance, sex shows, do the tourists even think about the girls who are doing it, how they actually think or feel or whether they were forced to do it for something call money or threaten by the brothels or traffickers. Does human right even exist in this context? And human trafficking, many an(prenominal) women and children have been trafficked, traded or sell but no one seems to try to stop it but they just close one eye. ECPAT estimates there are more than one million children worldwide that are engaged in sex trade each year. Poverty, cultural perception and demand are the main reasons that make the industry grow faster and stronger. Whenever there is a demand, there will be supply as many people are unemployed and most of them are in financial crisis. However, people are neglected what might hunt them afterwards, the diseases, the psychological effects and their unsure future.CHAPTER twain2.1 IntroductionSex tourism involves travel across national or international borders in order to t ake part in a non-reproductive sexual encounter. The sexual encounter may be with an great(p) or minor, man, women, transsexual or transvestite. It must involve an exchange of money or material goodlys for a sexual act (Ward, 2010).According to ECPAT (2008), child sex tourism (CTS) is defined as Sexual exploitation of children by a person or persons who travel from their home district, home geographical region, or home country in order to have sexual butt with children.Gregg (2003) stated that sex itself constitutes a social structure, emerging from desire, poverty, and gender inequalities that change men to drink, be violent, and fornicate openly, but sanction women to suffer embodied and linguistically. Womens pursuit of security with at best quasi-monogamous primary partners heightens their exposure to bearings and STDs but also their honor in the eyes of the community. Pursuing liberdade (freedom) instead with seven-fold partners expands their options but risks social appr obation, dampened marital prospects, and cancer. Sexism, racism, colonial exploitation, and academic research speculative misconceptions of fe phallicness and sexuality that endanger their health. Cervical cancer is absurdly idiotic with metaphoric potential.The origin of sex tourism as a orbiculate industry may be traced back to Asia during Vietnam War against America. In Thailand, sex tourism started to have its new path after Vietnam War in late 1950s. It has gained its popularity in every way. During the war, American used Thailand as their beastly and a place for recreation and rest for American soldiers, which the soldiers themselves called II, it stands for intercourse and intoxication. During their layover on, many brothels, clubs, bars and massage parlors were formed and they boosted up Thai economic it contributed around $16 million into Thai economy annually (Phoenix, 1991). From then, it has become one of the main sources of economic in Thailand. In order to satis fy and increase the demand, Thai government legitimated the Entertainment Act which allowed the operations of all forms of entertainment to serve the military. Then the government kept encouraging the development of sex industry openly to increase the revenues from the prostitution business. At the akin time, many rumours were spreading about the cheap available sex in southeastern Asia that many curious men had to go and witness themselves. In another rallying cry, American soldiers transformed topical anaesthetic prostitution markets into massive prostitution industries.on board with it, child sex tourism was developing. It was all due to the lack of child protection laws and regulation of child prostitution but above all, it was the cause of poverty.2.2 What drives sex tourism?So what drives sex tourism in Thailand? Many studies have been carried out to identify the reasons that drive sex tourism in Thailand. Many exbroadcastations have been pointed out like the poverty, the government policies, the demand from the tourists, the cultural perception, and in addition the low cost and the unique services that they can provide the customers.Firstly, the poverty, one of the major problems in Thailand, except for the big cities, many rural area and un-development districts are very poor. Added to it, they do not plan birth control, so many poor families have 4 to 5 children which just make their situation worse. Many are struggling to find a way to support their family. Alternatively, in another case, where the family is in debt and they are threatened to pay for it or they fail their agriculture or farm work and they need money to cover for it. Many parents have sold their children to pay for the debt. So when the agents tactfully approach the families, most of the family would trade their daughter for money and let them become sex workers. Not only that, many married women who then become widowed or left by their husbands and have their children to take ca re of, they do not have much options. It also includes many young girls that fed up of living in a life with no future they are willing to trade everything for a better life. Many of them are exposed through television receiver how a luxury easy life should be, the feeling of being rich, the ability to buy expensive beautiful things. And then they get influenced by their friends or follow the lead of the oldest among them, believing by becoming a prostitute they could change and become rich. Moreover, for them, foreigners equal to money, a gateway for a better life and a ticket to over-sea where they can experience what they deserve. Whether they are on business or leisure most of the time they could pay more than the average local clients or if the girl is lucky they could become their yellowish brown and have a better life. For the girls, becoming a prostitute for them is one of the easiest options to achieve what they want.In 2006, a study shows the annual turnover rate of sex industry in Thailand is around US$ 43 one thousand million per year, which is equivalent to one third of Thai economy. Daily around 4.6 million Thai men demand for prostitutes and yearly number of foreign tourists is 500 000 and most of them come from wealthy countries like America or Europe. befog government is another factor that encourages the growth of the industry, however the amount of money they receive from the industry is much more than the other industries which contribute the refinement of prostitutions. This is the main reason why sex tourism in Thailand expands the government wants the money it contributes to the country. Even though the government does not advertise it openly but most of the time they close one eye on most of activities sex industries do. In addition, lack of employment opportunities and vast income gaps between developing world on the one hand combined with local and international demand for commercial sexual services on the other, impact to crea te the push and pull factors forcing women and children onto prostitution.Then, the cultural perception, from long ago, Thai positive(p) that in the family the oldest daughter supposes to support the family by earning money, the second help the family by doing the chores, taking care of the family and the younger one receives the education. So in most Thai families, the oldest one is often encourage going to bigger urban center to find job to support the family. For them it is a sense a transaction or obligation to their parents, to share the familys burden. If they come from village or have little education or no work skills, they have only little choice but become a sex worker as it is the only job that helps them to earn fast money with good pay. Moreover, many Thai women believe prostitution will protect them from getting raped and working as a prostitute is less corrupting than working in the factory or fast viands restaurants. There is also Thai society placed on virginit y, which is meant to be bear on for ones husband. However, the belief is backfired, for instance, among rape cases after the girls lose their virginity they think they do not have any value anymore, so the only choice left for them is to become a sex worker.There are also cultural and sociological factors that affect children way of thinking. They are expected to listen to all the rules set by the adults, disobedient is an act that cannot be tolerated and they can be punished for it. withal that, with a historical legacy of foreign imperialism and the social hierarchy such a system had fostered, children become vulnerable to adult predators, precisely those who are foreign.Thirdly, the demand, mainly the demand for sex tourism and child sex tourism is from male customers, especially from wealthy, genuine nations and the fact that commercial sex is considered a male right in a male dominant commodity culture contribute a lot to this demand. Even though, the majority of sex touris ts are male but there are still female who travel for sex and child sex tourism.Thailand is know for providing good services with reasonable price. In addition, Western men are often attracted to Asian womens characteristics, for instance, their hair, the features, the way they talk or their graceful movements. Besides that, the nature of services is different too, for example, for them, sexual services are unremarkably bought the same way as normal commercial goods, both parties agree on the price for a specific task, and then the services will be delivered. After the service, they do not longer expect the prostitute to cuddle or act as their lover after sex but leave them after it. But compare to Asian women, some of them even cook, clean their room for the customers after the service and do not ask for extra money. They like the way they are treated by Asian women. Therefore, the demand from the tourists will keep increase and not decrease.Many people believe that sex tourism is not an exploitative practice and the children and female workers who are involved in the industry are willing and decide to choose this type of job for themselves. The idea of the workers being forced never cross their mind, because most of the time sex workers always look cheerful and smiling in front of sex tourists. Another coarse belief among sex tourists is that they think they are helping the victims financially. They believe by giving the victim money and gifts in exchange for sexual service they have helped the poor child and his or her family out of poverty. One of child sex tourists verbalise On this trip, I had sex with a 14 year old girl and a 15 year old I am helping them financially. If they dont have sex with me, they may not have enough food. If someone has a problem with me doing this, let UNICEF eat up them. Ive never paid more than $20 to these young women and that allows them to eat for a week. It may be true what the child sex tourist said but where is the moral behind it. It then leads to another reason why third world countries have a high demand for sex tourism, racist. Many sex tourists hold a strong view about them being superior than other people compare to their own and have sexual activities with younger girls in those countries consider acceptable than it is in developed world (The testimonial Project, 2007). When there is a demand there will be supply. As Pavena Hongsakula, a Minister in the Prime Ministers subroutine in 1999 wrote to The Bangkok Post, The Thai government does not and will not condone sex tourism. Although sex tours may bring in some foreign currencies, they are against all the moral principles we believe in. The sexual service business is an internal problem that we are trying to curb, but positive the supply will not help much if the demand keeps gushing(a) in.Furthermore, Thailand is known as the Land of Smile, they reassure they would provide whichever services that are asked from the customers and it would exceed what they expect from. For instance, Ping pong shows which refers as human zoo tourism, MacKinnon said, Pornography of Asian women sold in the West has been almost merely pornography of torture, this is just presenting that in the flesh. In the show, women have to do ridiculous terrible things, from eels to snakes to catfish, it is hurt to watch but for western men it is a form of entertainment. One tourist commented on the Ping Pong show, said, Its like a form of art, these women are really talented. Theyre making money the same way any other athlete makes money. The tourists really do not care much about the value of the sex workers and they have no respects or sympathy towards them.2.3 Child Sex TourismThere are two types of child sex tourists, one travel for a short period and they will come back to their home country, the later, they stay in the destination and travel around those neighbor countries too, most of the time they would apply for a job. However, mo st of them tend to travel independently to the chosen destination. They learn about the places through internet, forum chat or word of mouth. They also have specialized websites where they could post on the updates of information, advices and experiences of different destinations. In the websites they have chat room where they can discuss and suggest each other. Once they are in the destination, they could get more information through taxis drivers, advertisements, hotels or bars to gain the access to child prostitution. Otherwise, for instance, in Cambodia, they find their victim by working around the neighbourhood, beach area, riverside where the poor children are living on the street, begging or selling souvenirs. To make their first move, they will give the kids gifts, candies, meals or jewellery (The Protection Project, 2007). In many other places, the children will seek the paedophiles by themselves in the area where foreigners are known to congregate, or the pimps will approa ch the tourists for negotiating. Then those who stay for longer period of time and travel back and forth deep down the region of interest or take up residence with the purpose of abuse children. For instance, they travel to Thailand then move on to Cambodia or Philippines and eluding back to Thailand for renew visa purpose or other circumstances. Reports from southeastward Asia, Central America and Africa all pointed out that most of them often look for employment as English teachers, helping workers or similar occupations to be possessed of easy access to the children. For instance, they would come in close contacts with the victims even his or her family, so the family would somehow depends financial on them because while abusing they would provide the family money or gifts. Many other cases occurred where the foreigner adopts the child and claims he would take care of the child but in reality, he is using the child for abusing and sexuality purposes. In addition, there is als o tour operators that organize sex tour to Thailand, most of them always promise the customer the finest girls they could find in Thailand but there is no guaranteed whether the girls are not underage (The Protection Project, 2007).In 2006, studies conduct by Thai government and NGOs of Thailand report there is approximately 30 000 to 40 000 prostitutes are below the age of 18 that are exploited in the commercial sex industry in Thailand. (World vision 2007)2.4 Human TraffickingAccording to the UN protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children, supplementing the UN Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, human trafficking means the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harboring or receipt of persons by means of the threat or use of force or other forms of coercion of abduction, of fraud, of deception, of the abuse of power or of a position of vulnerability, or of the giving or receiving of payments or benefits to achieve c ombine of a person having control over another person, for the purpose of exploitation. growth shall include, at a minimum, the exploitation of the prostitution of others or other forms of sexual exploitation, forced labor or services, thrall or practices similar or slavery, servitude or the removal or organs.In 2003, 177 of 257 cases of suspected human trafficking reported by the DATJP were receiver through the Hotline. In 2005 the hotline received over 700 calls, which indicates the poem of human trafficking is increasing and the authority cannot do much to stop them.Sex trafficking in another word is modern day form of slavery in which the victims are forced, fraud or coercion in sex act. Victims of sex trafficking can be anyone, women or men, girls or boys but broadly are women and young girls. Due to the lack of knowledge and hardship of purpose employment from newly industrialized cities in Thailand, many of them rely on trafficking illegal immigrants to work as sex slave s. Many women and children are being sold by parents, lovers into sex trade or being kidnapped by traffickers. And many others naively agree to migrate with traffickers in hope of having better life in another country, financial opportunities that are promised or a false marriage proposal that turns into a bondage situation (ACF, 2008). Unfortunately, a couple of(prenominal) of them aware of the life that they are going to live in, bad food and living condition, low wages, sexual abuse, as well as the physical force and psychological control by traffickers. For instance, a study of post trafficked women in Europe reports 95% of victims interviewed experienced physical or sexual violence while they were in trafficking situation. Sex trafficking victims are forced to work for many different forms of commercial sexual exploitation such as prostitution, pornography, stripping, or live sex shows. To keep the victims under control, the traffickers put a lot of rack and threat on them. T he TVPA (2008) identifies that traffickers use psychological, physical pressure and bondage to keep the victims under control. Psychological and physical abuse include treats of serious harm to or physical restraint against the victims, added to it they use intent and pattern intended to bring the victims to believe that if they do not listen or fail in performing a task, the consequences would be in serious pain. The victims would be lie about the debt bondage, the trafficker will tell the victims about them owning a certain amount of money from the travelling and living expenses where they need to pay the dept in order to leave (ACF, 2008). The victims would be punished severely if they do not listen or try to escape. The traffickers will not care whether the victim is a lady or a child, whoever does not listen to them will be treated very badly, which includes beating, threats of violence, rape, starvation, forced drug use, isolation, intimidation and emotion manipulation. As th e result, regardless of the symptoms experienced the victims will usually have psychological problems they tend to have low self-esteem and they are afraid of many things which prevent them from develop and re-enter the society again once they escape or are carry through from the sex industry. For this reasons many shelters from both government and private have been built for the purpose of helping the victims to cope and start a new life. For instance, the main government shelter is Bahn Kredtrakarn, Bangkok they can nurse up to 500 rescued victims (Arnold Bertone, 2008). The shelters provide them a place to stay, food, medical care and counselling to recent rescued victims (ECPAT 30). They have psychologists to talk to the victims to try to help them out. Because they all went through tough time during trafficking situation, individual counselling will be presumptuousness to take care of victims wit